Introduction

In the recent years, there has been an increased interest in the area of apostolic ministries and networks, the restoration of the offices of apostle and prophet, and the question of how this relates to today’s church ministries and government. The main scriptural passage that is being examined and interpreted is that of Ephesians 4:11-12, often titled the Fivefold Ministry Gifts. There are many overlapping, but also competing views on this topic, ranging from strictly cessationist views, to fully restorationist views. The goal of this paper is to present the main arguments and positions of the two opposing positions, evaluate them in terms of their persuasiveness and give some suggestions on how to practically deal with this topic in today’s ministry and church environment. "The core issue in the debate is whether apostles and prophets continue in any form beyond the early church."[1][emphasis mine]

 

CONTENTS

 

[1] 1 Introduction

[2] 2 Origins and overview

• Development and Gathering of Critics
• The Berlin Declaration
• Reasons, Motivation, and Evaluation

 

[3] 3 Cessationist arguments

• Ceased ministry gifts
• Cessation of offices or functions
• Clergy versus lay ministry

 

[4] 4 Restorationist arguments

[5] 5 Evaluation of arguments

[6] 6 Conclusion

[7] 7 Bibliography

 

Part of the reason why the whole issue is so highly controversial lies in the fact that, like with almost any matter of church and ministry, there are and will be people who take it to non-scriptural extremes. Bill Hamon rightly assessed that there will be "extremes in the restoration of truth "and that "abuse cannot be totally prevented."[2] Unfortunately, it cannot be avoided that certain ministries will serve as bad examples and fuel the arguments of the critics. It is important, therefore, to sift the wheat from the tares. The main standard that needs to be applied is that any teaching and doctrine has to be tested by scripture.

Chapter 2

Origins and Overview

It is hard to pinpoint at what time the term Fivefold Ministry was used first to refer to the Eph 4:11-12 scripture. Certainly, the beginning of Pentecostalism at the turn of the 20th century popularized the gifts of the Holy Spirit as relevant and available for believers today, although manifestations of the Holy Spirit can be traced throughout church history. The concept of the Fivefold Ministry is well documented as being a distinctive belief and practice of the Latter Rain Movement, which later brought these ideas into the Charismatic Renewal. [3] I could not find proof that the exact term Fivefold Ministry was used in the beginning of the Latter Rain Movement. Instead, I found that the term "’foundational ministries’ of Eph. 4:11"[4] was being used. It seems like the actual term Fivefold Ministry was developed later, to summarize and label the Eph 4 passage and the distinct teachings about the five ministry gifts of apostle, prophet, evangelist, pastor, and teacher. Teachings about the Fivefold Ministry received great popularity in the 1980s and 90s, when numerous books were published and so called new apostolic networks and churches came into being.

Certainly, the idea of apostolic church government is older than that, and even predates Pentecostalism. In 1863, the New Apostolic Church in Germany established a church government and structure modeled after Eph 4and the functions of fourfold gift ministries. [5] Their understanding of articulation and exercise of spiritual gifts goes even further back to Edward Irving (1792-1834), who was convinced that the spiritual gifts, including those mentioned in Eph 4:11-12, needed to be restored to the church. [6]

The most disputed issue about the Fivefold Ministry is the prominence of the gift, ministry, function and office of apostle. Before looking at the various arguments for and against it, I want to lay a brief foundation of the meaning and origin of the New Testament apostles. The Greek meaning of the word apostle carries the idea of someone sent, a messenger, including the significance of authorization of a messenger. [7] More insight can be gained when interpreting the NT word apostolosin light of Hebrew-Jewish terminology and usage. Price points out the similarities of the NT apostle and the OT sheluchim prophets. [8] Some even trace the origins of the NT apostle to the influence of Gnosticism. [9]

Most scholars identify three distinct groups or kinds of apostles in the New Testament. [10] The first group commonly referred to as Apostles were the Twelve Apostles, chosen and established by Jesus. The second kind of apostle is the Apostle Paul, who, due to his unique calling and ministry, is generally recognized as an apostle of the same authority as the Twelve. The third group of apostles are other persons of the NT, which are also referred to as apostles. There is no commonly agreed upon term for this group, and the number of these additional apostles is also disputed. Bill Hamon identifies 12 other apostles[11] , among them Barnabas, James the brother of Jesus, Silas and Apollos. It is debated to what extent these apostles are of the same authority as the Twelve, but many agree that they at least had the "gift of apostleship."[12]

Regarding the gift, ministry, function, and office of prophet, there is a less heated debate. Nevertheless, the extend of authority and revelation of today’s prophetic gifting is very much under question, although some scholars that hold a strict cessationist view admit that "one must not speak too dogmatically about it."[13] Since the Fivefold Ministry stands or falls with the validity and authenticity of apostles, this will be the main point examined.

Chapter 3

Cessationist Arguments

The view of the cessationist faction is far from homogenous and needs some clarification. Their views can be categorized into two subjects. First, which of the ministry gifts have ceased. Second, does the cessation only concern the offices, or does it also include the functions. The second subject would include the question to what extent the gifts have functionally ceased. I also want to take a brief look at the topic of clergy versus lay ministry, because Eph 4:12 has some implications on the general view of the Christian ministry.

Ceased ministry gifts

As a minimum factor, the cessationists consider the ministry gift of apostle to have ceased. [14] There is no agreement on when exactly apostles have ceased to exist. Most scholars draw the line at the end of the first century AD, although some hold that there were still people named apostles at the beginning of the second century. [15] Many also believe that the ministry gift of prophet disappeared, and a minority even holds that the ministry gift of evangelist was confined to the early church. [16]

The main argument why these ministry gifts are not needed any longer is given as the finalization of authoritative writings, which later would become accepted as the NT canon. Eph 3:5 is interpreted saying that certain mysteries and revelations have been made to the apostles and prophets in the Spirit. The past tense is seen as indication that this revelation is now, at the time of writing, complete. Apostolic authority was one of the criteria that was considered necessary for canonization of a writing. Therefore, these ministry gifts must have ceased, because the canon is complete and there can’t be any new authoritative writings.

A second argument comes from exegesis of a second passage in the letter to the Ephesians. In Eph 2:20, Paul states that the household of God was built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets. The aorist passive participle employed[17] is viewed as confirming the conclusion of building this foundation.

Cessation of offices or functions

The Christian (Roman Catholic) Church has always believed that the office of apostle was somewhat preserved. Until the Reformation, the doctrine of apostolic succession was not seriously challenged or questioned. Many scholars agree that the NT does not yet show a fixed and consistent theology of ministry offices. Hoehner even asserts that "the term ‘office’ is never used in the NT in connection with gifts."[18] Many commentators agree that the Eph 4 passage does not talk about offices. [19] The development from a charisma gift and function to office took place in the centuries following the formation of the NT church. "Gradually the concept of office took over the concept of charism, and by the end of the fourth century a charism was almost universally understood as charism of office."[20]

The cessationist view goes a step further and takes two basic views on the cessation of office and function. The first view is that the offices as described in Eph 4 have ceased, but that the functions are still, to a limited extent, present and exercised in today’s church. The second and more radical view is, that not only the offices have ceased, but also the function, and with it, the charisma and ministry. The majority of cessationists claim that the pastor and teacher took over some of the functions and ministries of the NT apostle, prophet, and evangelist. Some maintain that the designation of prophet was not abolished, but that their ministry was limited to "presenting God’s people truths received, not by direct revelation, but from the careful study of the completed and infallible Word of God."[21] This view basically denies any essentially prophetic function and charisma, since preaching and exposition of the word is also the main task of the pastor and teacher.

Clergy versus lay ministry

The interpretation of Eph 4:12 carries some important implication on lay ministry and defines in the eyes of the restorationists the raison d’être of the fivefold ministry gifts of Eph 4:11. The question is whether Eph 4:12 teaches a "distinctive role of the officers "in equipping the saints for the ministry. [22] Due to the lack of punctuation in the Greek texts, the syntactical relation of the purpose clauses in Eph 4:12are subject to debate. There are four main readings for verse twelve[23] :

A) "For the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ." (KJV, ARV, DRV, YLT, VG)

B) "For the perfecting of the saints; with a view to (the)work of (the) ministry, with a view to the edifying of the body of Christ."(Darby, Wycliffe NT is similar)

C) "To equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ." (NA²⁷, UBS⁴, NEB, NASB, NRSV, Elberfelder)

D) "To prepare God’s people for works of service, so that the body of Christ may be built up." (TEV, JB, NIV, NJB, Luther 1545)

The four readings express a different understanding of the Christian ministry in regards to the role of clergy and the involvement of the laity. On a continuum, reading A proposes a strict division between clergy and laity, as opposed to reading D, which expresses the idea that the saints /laity should be equipped by the Fivefold Ministry, which essentially leads to a clergy hood of all believers. In most cases, the supporters of a cessationist view are more inclined to towards reading A or B. Some even attribute the equipping of the laity as "egalitarian, anti-authoritarian, populist Zeitgeist. "[24]

Chapter 4

Restorationist Arguments

Equipping lay people for ministry is seen as one of the foundational purposes and functions of the Fivefold Ministry today. Restorationist claim that the division between clergy and laity was never intended in the New Testament, but was a result of the development of the Christian Church to guard themselves from the influence of sects and false teachings. Some commentators don’t see any NT support for a clergy laity division[25] or agree at least that the issue is far from being clear in favor for a division. [26] In the context of the whole chapter of Eph 4 it also seems to suggest that the receiver of the equipping and building up are the saints. Verse 7 talks about the gifts given to each one, and verse 13 states the temporal condition of the Fivefold Ministry to God’s people: "until we all reach unity in the faith and in the knowledge of the Son of God and become mature, attaining to the whole measure of the fullness of Christ."[emphasis mine] Also, one of the key subjects of Eph 4 is unity. A break in verse 11 and 12, defining clergy offices and ministry apart from any involvement of God’s people, would be an interruption of the flow of Paul’s thought that creates more problems than it would explain.

The temporal adverb until in verse 13 is one of the strong arguments for the position that the complete Fivefold Ministry is still needed today. [27] No good arguments from the side of the cessationists exist that would explain why and how the Church would already have arrived at unity in faith, become mature and attained the whole measure of Christ by the end of the first century AD.

The discussion of whether some of the gifts have ceased or not can hardly be convincingly answered on scriptural basis. The Greek text of Eph 4:11 does not indicate any difference between the five ministry gifts. Other passages that talk about spiritual gifts don’t give any indication that they would be given only for a limited period of time. One important question remains: does the list in Eph 4:11 present charisma gifts, functions or offices. From a restorationist point of view, there is limited interest in restoring offices or titles. Although some anticipate a full restoration with apostles and prophets of authority and magnitude comparable to the NT apostles and prophets, most take a moderate view that the important thing is to restore the functions and gifts, so that the church can be build up and the people equipped for ministry.

Proponents of the Fivefold Ministry are often concerned with biblical leadership structures, trying to recover NT models of how to organize and structure churches and ministries. The clash between cessationists and restorationists often takes place over ecclesial tradition. Traditionally, the pastors and teachers, partially assuming functions of the apostle, prophet and evangelist, created a pastoral leadership model that is not found in the NT. A pastor as the head and senior leader of a congregation is unknown in the NT. [28]

An interesting theory regarding the chronological order of restoration is presented by Bill Hamon. He suggests that the restoration of the five gifts happens in reverse order of original establishment, according to the scriptural principle "the last will be first, and the first will be last."[29] He perceives that the original establishment was first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, fourth pastors and fifth evangelists. Accordingly, the restoration began in reverse order in the 1950’s with the evangelist, in the 60’s the pastor, in the 70’s the teacher, the prophet in the 80’s and the apostle in the 90’s. [30] Problem with this is that all of the gifts have been recovered many times throughout the centuries, often fiercely battled by the established churches, and subsequently either defeated or assimilated.

Chapter 5

Evaluation of Arguments

The reason why the two positions of cessationism and restorationism seem so irreconcilable is twofold. First, as even supporters of the Fivefold Ministry point out, there is a lot of potential for mistakes and extreme positions. Even more, learning from the history of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements, we can not but accept that mistakes will be made. One has to be realistic: implementing the Fivefold Ministry will cause some friction, will sometimes violate sound scriptural interpretation and allow for unscriptural actions and doctrines. To be fair, the same mistakes and extremes can be found in the camp of cessationists as well. No church, ministry, denomination or movement is exempt from making mistakes. Secondly, there are a lot of areas of mistrust and prejudice towards the restorationist movement. I want to look at some of the assumptions that are often made without being questioned regarding their validity and relevance.

One area of great criticism is the area of assumed authority and the "authoritarian nature of the fivefold ministry."[31] One of the reasons why the existence of modern day apostles is refused is that there is a fear that they would assume the same authority as the Twelve Apostles and Paul, using their authority to abolish accepted church doctrine and possibly even change the Bible. Between the lines, one can read the fear that these new apostles would be above scriptural authority. This is far from the real intentions of restoring the Fivefold Ministry, and in my opinion, an unnecessary polarization, sometimes bordering to utilizing a FUD[32] strategy. Many of the proponents of the Fivefold Ministryare earnestly concerned with proper interpretation of scriptures and showing a great respect for the Bible. Many of them even see the Fivefold Ministry as a corrective measure to too much authoritarian leadership models that are presented in forms of senior pastor models. A great strength of the Fivefold Ministry lies in a team-ministry based approach, with mutual checks and balances. The concern is not for building an authority structure, but to create a leadership and model of church governance that allows for participation, accountability and leadership and empowering through the Holy Spirit.

The issue of lay ministry is dear to the heart of the Fivefold Ministry supporters. It is rather obvious that the classic model of church ministry, with a few clergy preaching to a crowd of passive lay people on a Sunday morning, is not an effective discipleship strategy. If the Great Commission is to be taken seriously, it has to include the equipping of God’s people in one way or the other. Clearly, the New Testament calls for discipleship of every person, not only a few that are called to be clergy. Discipleship is hardly an exercise of acquiring knowledge and character without using the God-given talents and gifts to benefit others. The passages on the spiritual gifts in the NT expect that these gifts are utilized by each member of the church. Opponents of lay ministry seems to have a strange understanding of how people get into ministry. In their understanding, there seems to be a very strict process of getting into the ministry. It starts with a calling early on in life, undergraduate and graduate studies of theology, and then ministry. This denies reality and the natural development of how people grow in faith. Naturally, people develop their skills and gifts over time, and at some point, might receive a calling into ministry. To stipulate a rigid way of how and when a calling into ministry can be followed is truly not prescribed in the New Testament. Even more, we find dozens of examples in the NT of ministers that were bi-vocational. This even included the Apostle Paul. A point of discussion beyond the scope of this paper is the question of what exactly constitutes a calling to ministry, and what forms living out this calling can take.

T. David Gordon, a strict opponent of equipping laity for ministry, has a valid point mourning the negative effects of clergy turning away from the "ministry of the Word (original language exegesis) . . . toward organizational, managerial and motivational (coercive?) skills."[33] But one has to ask if this really is an intention of the Fivefold Ministry. Rather, the problem here seems to be a faulty understanding of the role of elders and especially deacons, who according to the NT, are supposed to take care of administrative functions (services) in the local church, and to a much smaller degree, the spiritual ministries. The detailed relationship of the Fivefold Ministry gifts and the offices of bishop, elder and deacons would be an interesting field for further study.

Chapter 6

Conclusion

The restoration of the Fivefold Ministry seems to be the latest of many restorations of foundational truths of the Bible. The opposition it receives is comparable to what former pioneers experienced who tried to change the status quo. One can vividly imagine how Martin Luther’s restoration of the scriptural doctrine of justification by faith was received by the Catholic Church at that time. Surely, they found flaws, dangers and extremes with that new movement. But it restored that lost truth back to the Body of Christ, and helped to mature the whole Church, preparing it for the Second Coming of the Lord.

The Greek word [Greek: katartismos] in Eph 4:12 is translated ‘perfecting’, ‘equipping’ or ‘preparing’. It is interesting to note that this is the only NT occurrence of that noun. [34] However, the corresponding verb [Greek: katartizo] occurs thirteen times in the NT, and has additionally the meaning of ‘to repair’ and ‘to restore’. Although that reading is not seen as probable for the noun in verse 12, rendering [Greek: katartismo] as ‘repairing’ or ‘restoring’ certainly gives the restoration of the Fivefold Ministry a whole new meaning for the church of today:

11 It was he who gave some to be apostles, some to be prophets, some to be evangelists, and some to be pastors and teachers, 12 to restore God’s people for works of service, so that the body of Christ may be built up 13 until we all reach unity in the faith and in the knowledge of the Son of God and become mature, attaining to the whole measure of the fullness of Christ. (NIV)[emphasis mine]

 

Looking at the state of the Church today, what we need more than ever is the Holy Spirit to renew and restore every Christian for the works of service and ministry. Unfortunately, the Church is losing ground on many levels in our society. If we leave it up to the paid clergy to fix the situation, I’m afraid the battle might already be lost. The hope is that God would use every single Christian to build his kingdom. God promised to fill every Christian with his Holy Spirit, and to give good gifts of grace to everyone. In the same way, I also believe that he is preparing his Church by restoring lost truth.

The Apostolic ministry cannot function if it buries the talent of God’s truth in the sheltered garden of its own ecclesiastical tradition. The only form in which the apostolic faith can exist without becoming worthless is by being put out to usury like any other money, in ordinary commerce of human affairs, the confident belief that it is good money, invested in an enterprise which is a "good risk, "and that in "free competition" with all its opponents it will reap an abundant reward. [35]

 

Bibliography

Best, Ernest. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Ephesians. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998.
Burgess, Stanley M. , and Vander Maas, Ed M. The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements. Rev. and expanded ed. / Stanley M. Burgess, editor ; Eduard M. van der Maas, associate editor. Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan Pub. House, 2002.
Duffield, Guy P. , and Nathaniel M. Van Cleave. Foundations of Pentecostal Theology. Los Angeles, Calif: L. I. F. E. Bible College, 1983.
Eberle, Harold R. The Complete Wineskin (Revised Edition). 4thded. Yakima, WA: Winepress Pub. , 1997.
Gordon, T. David. ""Equipping" Ministry in Ephesians 4. " Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 37 (Mr1994): 69-78.
Grant, Robert McQueen. "The Office of Apostle in the Early Church. " Journal of Ecumenical Studies 8, no. 1 (Wint 1971): 161-162.
Hamon, Bill. Apostles, Prophets, and the Coming Moves of God : God’s End-Time Plans for His Church and Planet Earth. Santa Rosa Beach, FL;Shippensburg, PA: Christian International; Destiny Image, 1997.
Hoehner, Harold W. Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary. Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2002.
Jenkins, Daniel Thomas. "The Apostolic Ministry Today. " Theology Today 4, no. 4 (Ja 1948): 474-484.
LeBlanc, Douglas. "Fivefold Ministry Makes a Comeback. " Christian Research Journal 22, no. 1 (1999): 6-8.
Lincoln, Andrew T. Ephesians. Dallas, Tex: Word Books, 1990.
Lloyd-Jones, David Martyn. Christian Unity : An Exposition of Ephesians 4:1 to 16. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981.
McDonnell, Kilian. "Ways of Validating Ministry. " Journal of Ecumenical Studies 7, no. 2 (Spr 1970): 209-265.
Price, Theron D. "The Emergence of the Christian Ministry. " Review & Expositor 46 (Ap 1949): 216-238.
Schmithals, Walter, and John E. Steely. The Office of Apostle in the Early Church. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1969.

Footnotes

[1] Douglas LeBlanc, "Fivefold Ministry Makes a Comeback. " Christian Research Journal 22, no. 1 (1999), 7.
[2] Bill Hamon, Apostles, Prophets, and the Coming Moves of God : God’s End-Time Plans for His Church and Planet Earth, (Santa Rosa Beach, FL; Shippensburg, PA: Christian International; Destiny Image, 1997), 189.
[3] Stanley M. Burgess and Van der Maas, Ed M. , The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, Rev. and expanded ed. / Stanley M. Burgess, editor ; Eduard M. van der Maas, associate editor. (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan Pub. House, 2002), 832.
[4] Ibid. , 832.
[5] Ibid. , 928.
[6] Ibid. , 802.
[7] Harold W. Hoehner, Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary, (Grand Rapids, Mich:Baker Academic, 2002), 134.
[8] Theron D. Price, "The Emergence of the Christian Ministry. " Review & Expositor 46 (Ap 1949), 217-18.
[9] Robert McQueen Grant, "The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, " Journal of Ecumenical Studies 8, no. 1 (Wint 1971): 161-162. in a book review of Walter Schmithals and John E. Steely, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1969), 288.
[10] Hoehner, "Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary, " 134. ; Guy P. Duffield and Nathaniel M. Van Cleave, Foundations of Pentecostal Theology, (Los Angeles, Calif: L. I. F. E. Bible College, 1983), 348-50.
[11] Hamon, "Apostles, Prophets, and the Coming Moves of God : God’s End-Time Plans for His Church and Planet Earth", 5.
[12] Hoehner, "Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary", 452.
[13] David Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Christian Unity : An Exposition of Ephesians 4:1 to 16, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981), 188.
[14]It is interesting to note that the Catholic Church is holding an intermediate position in the form of the doctrine of apostolic succession. For the Protestant church, apostolic succession is mainly seen as the faithful succession of apostolic teaching. For a lengthy discourse of the apostolic office by succession, see Kilian McDonnell, "Ways of Validating Ministry. " Journal of Ecumenical Studies 7, no. 2 (Spr 1970), 209-265.
[15] Ernest Best, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Ephesians, (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998), 389.
[16] Lloyd-Jones, "Christian Unity: An Exposition of Ephesians 4:1 to 16", 191-2. Lloyd-Jones argues that the office of evangelist in the New Testament was considerably different from modern understanding. In his view, the evangelist was a "very special man who was in close association with the apostles . . . , appointed by the apostles themselves, and can be described as a kind of understudy to the apostles."
[17] Hoehner, "Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary", 397.
[18] Ibid. , 539. See also for five possible distinctions between gift and office.
[19] Ibid. , 541. Andrew T. Lincoln, Ephesians, (Dallas, Tex: Word Books, 1990), 252. Not so Best, "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Ephesians", 394-95. He sees in Eph 4:11 as a list of "Christ’s gift of office bearers to the church."
[20] McDonnell, "Ways of Validating Ministry", 251.
[21] LeBlanc, "Fivefold Ministry Makes a Comeback", 9.
[22] T. David Gordon, ""Equipping" Ministry in Ephesians 4. " Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 37 (Mr1994), 69.
[23] see detailed analysis in Hoehner, "Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary", 547-9.
[24] Gordon, ""Equipping"Ministry in Ephesians 4", 77.
[25] Hoehner, "Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary", 549. ;
[26] Best, "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Ephesians", 398-9.
[27] Hoehner, "Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary", 552. "used with an aorist subjunctive, it means‘until, of a punctiliarly conceived future event preceded in time by the action of the main clause. ’ This conjunction could depend on the immediately preceding prepositional phrase ‘for the building up of the body of Christ, ’ but is more probable that it relates back to [Greek: edoken], ‘he gave, ’ in verse 11, denoting that he gave gifted individuals to the church and that will continue until the action of the following aorist subjunctive katanthvswmen ‘until we all attain. ’"
[28] Harold R. Eberle, The Complete Wineskin (Revised Edition), 4thd ed. (Yakima, WA: Winepress Pub. , 1997), 43-4.
[29]Mt 20:16
[30] Hamon, "Apostles, Prophets, and the Coming Moves of God : God’s End Time Plans for His Church and Planet Earth", 52-4.
[31] LeBlanc, "Fivefold Ministry Makes a Comeback", 9.
[32]"Fear, uncertainty and doubt (FUD) is a sales or marketing strategy of disseminating negative but vague or inaccurate information on a competitor’s product. The term originated to describe misinformation tactics in the computer software industry and has since been used more broadly. (Source: Wikipedia, http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/FUD)
[33] Gordon, ""Equipping"Ministry in Ephesians 4", 78.
[34] Best, "A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Ephesians", 395.
[35] Daniel Thomas Jenkins, "The Apostolic Ministry Today, " Theology Today 4, no. 4 (Ja 1948), 479.

  (c) 2005 by Dominik Reinmund